[SOLVED] Help in writing assignment – Business Finance

Help in writing the practical connection between my work and current course work. See below, The course is Fall 2020 – Mng Ethic & Soc Resp (BADM-737-M20) – Full Term and I request you to provide me a summary of reflection that could be applied practically to my work and I work as a quality engineer at a medical device manufacturing company, I request you to write a 600 word practical connection. Need to provide specific examples that can be used in our daily work. Let me know if you have any questions Refer to the attached textbook for referenceBusiness and
Society
Stakeholders, Ethics, Public Policy
Sixteenth Edition
Anne T. Lawrence
San José State University
James Weber
Duquesne University
BUSINESS AND SOCIETY: STAKEHOLDERS, ETHICS, PUBLIC POLICY, SIXTEENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2020 by McGraw-Hill
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 21 20 19
ISBN 978-1-260-04366-2 (bound edition)
MHID 1-260-04366-5 (bound edition)
ISBN 978-1-260-14049-1 (loose-leaf edition)
MHID 1-260-14049-0 (loose-leaf edition)
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lawrence, Anne T., author. | Weber, James (Business ethics professor),
  author.
Title: Business and society: stakeholders, ethics, public policy / Anne T.
   Lawrence, San Jose State University, James Weber, Duquesne University.
Description: Sixteenth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2020]
Identifiers: LCCN 2018052591 | ISBN 9781260043662 (alk. paper) | ISBN
   1260043665 (bound edition) | ISBN 9781260140491 (loose-leaf edition) |
   ISBN 1260140490 (loose-leaf edition)
Subjects: LCSH: Social responsibility of business.
Classification: LCC HD60 .F72 2020 | DDC 658.4/08—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc
.gov/2018052591
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About the Authors
Anne T. Lawrence San José State University
Anne T. Lawrence is professor of management emerita at San José State University. She
holds a Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley, and completed two years of postdoctoral study at Stanford University. Her articles, cases, and reviews have appeared in many
journals, including the Academy of Management Review, Administrative Science Quarterly,
Case Research Journal, Journal of Management Education, California Management Review,
Business and Society Review, Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy, and
Journal of Corporate Citizenship. Her cases in business and society have been reprinted
in many textbooks and anthologies. She has served as guest editor of the Case Research
Journal. She served as president of both the North American Case Research Association
(NACRA) and of the Western Casewriters Association and is a Fellow of NACRA, from
which she received a Distinguished Contributor Award in 2014. She received the Emerson
Center Award for Outstanding Case in Business Ethics (2004) and the Curtis E. Tate Award
for Outstanding Case of the Year (1998, 2009, and 2015). At San José State University,
she was named Outstanding Professor of the Year in 2005. In 2015, she received a Master
Teacher in Ethics Award from The Wheatley Institution at Brigham Young University. She
currently serves as chair of the board of the Case Research Foundation.
James Weber
Duquesne University
James Weber is a professor of management and business ethics at Duquesne University,
where he also serves as the managing director of the Institute for Ethics in Business. He
holds a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh and has taught at the University of San
Francisco, University of Pittsburgh, and Marquette University. His areas of interest and
research include personal, managerial, and organizational values and cognitive moral
­reasoning. His work has appeared in Organization Science, Human Relations, Business &
Society, Journal of Business Ethics, and Business Ethics Quarterly. He received the SIM
Sumner Marcus Award for lifetime contribution to the Social Issues in Management
division of the Academy of Management in 2013 and the Best Reviewer Award from
Business & Society in 2015. He was recognized by the Social Issues in Management division with the Best Paper Award in 1989 and 1994 and received the Best Article Award
from the International Association for Business and Society in 1998. He has served as
division and program chair of the Social Issues in Management division of the Academy
of Management. He has also served as president and program chair of the International
Association of Business and Society (IABS).
iii
Preface
In a world economy that is becoming increasingly integrated and interdependent, the relationship between business and society is becoming ever more complex. The globalization of business, the emergence of civil society organizations in many nations, and rapidly
changing government regulations and international agreements have significantly altered
the job of managers and the nature of strategic decision making within the firm.
At no time has business faced greater public scrutiny or more urgent demands to act
in an ethical and socially responsible manner than at the present. Consider the following:
∙ The rise of populist and nationalist political leaders in the United States and parts of
Europe and the Middle East have led to renewed debates on the proper role of government in regulating business and protecting stakeholders. As environmental, financial,
employment, and consumer regulations have been rolled back, particularly in the United
States, businesses have had to choose whether to take advantage of loosened rules or to
follow a strategy of voluntary corporate responsibility. Long-standing trade relationships
have been upended by tariffs and other barriers on imports, helping some businesses and
hurting others. Changing immigration policy has required firms to rethink their policies
toward their foreign-born workers, including so-called Dreamers brought to the United
States illegally as children. In this rapidly changing environment, business firms have
been challenged to manage in a way that remains consistent with their values.
∙ A host of new technologies have become part of the everyday lives of billions of the
world’s people. Advances in the basic sciences are stimulating extraordinary changes in
agriculture, telecommunications, transportation, and pharmaceuticals, which have the
potential to enhance peoples’ health and quality of life. Artificial intelligence can be
used to drive vehicles, diagnose illnesses, and manage investments. Technology has
changed how we interact with others, bringing people closer together through social
networking, instant messaging, and photo and video sharing. These innovations hold
great promise. But they also raise serious ethical issues, such as those associated with
the use of the Internet to exploit or defraud others, censor free expression, or invade
individuals’ privacy. Businesses must learn to harness powerful technologies for good,
while acting responsibly and ethically toward their many stakeholders.
∙ Businesses in the United States and other nations are transforming the employment
relationship, abandoning practices that once provided job security and guaranteed pensions in favor of highly flexible but less secure forms of employment. The rise of the
“gig” economy has transformed many workers into self-employed contractors. Many
jobs, including those in the service sector, are being outsourced to the emerging economies of China, India, and other nations. As jobs shift abroad, multinational corporations
are challenged to address their obligations to workers in far-flung locations with very
different cultures and to respond to initiatives, like the Responsible Business Alliance
Code of Conduct, which call for voluntary commitment to enlightened labor standards
and human rights. The #MeToo movement has focused a spotlight on sexual harassment
and abusive behavior in the workplace, and led to the fall of well-known executives and
media personalities and calls for change in workplace culture.
∙ Severe weather events—hurricanes, floods, and wildfires—have urgently focused
attention on the human impact on natural systems, prompting both businesses and
iv
Preface v
governments to act. An emerging consensus about the causes and risks of climate
change is leading many companies to adopt new practices, and once again the nations
of the world have experimented with public policies designed to limit the emissions
of greenhouse gases, most notably in the Paris Agreement. Many businesses have
cut air pollution, curbed solid waste, and designed products and buildings to be more
energy-efficient, saving money in the process. A better understanding of how human
activities affect natural resources is producing a growing understanding that economic
growth must be achieved in balance with environmental protection if development is to
be sustainable.
∙ Many regions of the world and its nations are developing at an extraordinary rate. Yet,
the prosperity that accompanies economic growth is not shared equally. Access to health
care, adequate nutrition, and education remain unevenly distributed among and within
the world’s nations, and inequalities of wealth and income have become greater than
they have been in many years. These trends have challenged businesses to consider the
impact of their compensation, recruitment, and professional development practices on
the persistent—and in some cases, growing—gap between the haves and the have-nots.
Big corporate tax cuts in the United States have required companies to decide whether
to distribute their windfalls to their executives, shareholders, employees, or customers;
to invest in new jobs; or to buy back stock.
∙ The opioid epidemic has focused attention on the role of drug companies, distributors,
and pharmacies—as well as government regulators—in contributing to the scourge of
addiction, disability, and death caused by narcotics. The continuing pandemic of AIDS
in sub-Saharan Africa and the threat of a swine or avian flu, the Zika virus, or another
Ebola outbreak have compelled drug makers to rethink both their pricing policies and
their research priorities. Many businesses must consider the delicate balance between
their intellectual property rights and the urgent demands of public health, particularly in
the developing world.
∙ In many nations, legislators have questioned business’s influence on politics. Business
has a legitimate role to play in the public policy process, but it has on occasion shaded
over into undue influence and even corruption. Technology offers candidates and political parties new ways to reach out and inform potential voters, but it has also created new
opportunities for manipulation of the electoral process through deceptive messaging.
Businesses the world over are challenged to determine their legitimate scope of influence and how to voice their interests most effectively in the public policy process.
The new Sixteenth Edition of Business and Society addresses this complex agenda of
issues and their impact on business and its stakeholders. It is designed to be the required
textbook in an undergraduate or graduate course in Business and Society; Business, Government, and Society; Social Issues in Management; or the Environment of Business. It may
also be used, in whole or in part, in courses in Business Ethics and Public Affairs Management. This new edition of the text is also appropriate for an undergraduate sociology course
that focuses on the role of business in society or on contemporary issues in business.
The core argument of Business and Society is that corporations serve a broad public
purpose: to create value for society. All companies must make a profit for their owners.
Indeed, if they did not, they would not long survive. However, corporations create many
other kinds of value as well. They are responsible for professional development for their
employees, innovative new products for their customers, and generosity to their communities. They must partner with a wide range of individuals and groups in society to advance
collaborative goals. In our view, corporations have multiple obligations, and all stakeholders’ interests must be considered.
vi Preface
A Tradition of Excellence
Since the 1960s, when Professors Keith Davis and Robert Blomstrom wrote the first edition of this book, Business and Society has maintained a position of leadership by discussing central issues of corporate social performance in a form that students and faculty have
found engaging and stimulating. The leadership of the two founding authors, and later of
Professors William C. Frederick and James E. Post, helped Business and Society to achieve
a consistently high standard of quality and market acceptance. Thanks to these authors’
remarkable eye for the emerging issues that shape the organizational, social, and public
policy environments in which students will soon live and work, the book has added value
to the business education of many thousands of students.
Business and Society has continued through several successive author teams to be the
market leader in its field. The current authors bring a broad background of business and
society research, teaching, consulting, and case development to the ongoing evolution of
the text. The new Sixteenth Edition of Business and Society builds on its legacy of market
leadership by reexamining such central issues as the role of business in society, the nature
of corporate responsibility and global citizenship, business ethics practices, and the complex roles of government and business in a global community.
For Instructors
For instructors, this textbook offers a complete set of supplements.
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notes. A computerized test bank and power point slides for every chapter are also provided.
Preface vii
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The new Sixteenth Edition of the text is designed to be as student-friendly as
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to do further research on topics of their choice, and subject and name indexes help
students locate items in the book.
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x Preface
New for the Sixteenth Edition
Over the years, the issues addressed by Business and Society have changed as the environment of business itself has been transformed. This Sixteenth Edition is no exception,
as readers will discover. Some issues have become less compelling and others have taken
their place on the business agenda, while others have endured through the years.
The Sixteenth Edition has been thoroughly revised and updated to reflect the latest
theoretical work in the field and statistical data, as well as recent events. Among the new
additions are:
∙ New discussion of theoretical advances in stakeholder theory, corporate citizenship,
public affairs management, public and private regulation, corporate governance,
social and environmental auditing, social investing, reputation management, business
partnerships, supply chain codes of conduct, social entrepreneurship, and corporate
philanthropy.
∙ Treatment of practical issues, such as social networking, artificial intelligence and
robotics, gender diversity, political advertising and campaign contributions, public and
media relations, well as the latest developments in the regulatory environment in which
businesses operate.
∙ New discussion cases and full-length cases on such timely topics as the role of business in the unfolding opioid crisis, Wells Fargo’s unauthorized consumer accounts, the
Volkswagen diesel emissions scandal, the aftermath of the BP disaster in the Gulf of
Mexico, the massive Equifax data breach, the consumer boycott of Stoli vodka, the
business response to the movement for school safety, LaFarge’s dealings in the Syrian
war zone, the potential regulation of Facebook in the United States and Europe, political
action by the U.S. steel industry on the issue of tariffs, the rise of autonomous vehicles,
law enforcement access to mobile phone data, executive misconduct at Wynn Resorts,
business response to the threat to “Dreamers,” IKEA’s sustainable supply chain, Salesforce’s integrated philanthropy, and social media criticism of United Airlines.
Finally, this is a book with a vision. It is not simply a compendium of information
and ideas. The new edition of Business and Society articulates the view that in a global
community, where traditional buffers no longer protect business from external change,
managers can create strategies that integrate stakeholder interests, respect personal values,
support community development, and are implemented fairly. Most important, businesses
can achieve these goals while also being economically successful. Indeed, this may be the
only way to achieve economic success over the long term.
Anne T. Lawrence
James Weber
Acknowledgments
We are grateful for the assistance of many colleagues at universities in the United States
and abroad who over the years have helped shape this book with their excellent suggestions
and ideas. We also note the feedback from students in our classes and at other colleges and
universities that has helped make this book as user-friendly as possible.
We especially wish to thank two esteemed colleagues who made special contributions
to this edition. David M. Wasieleski, professor of management and business ethics at
Duquesne University, led the revisions of Chapters 5 and 6, to which he contributed his
knowledge of ethics theory and organizational practice. Vanessa D. Hill, associate professor of management at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, generously shared with us
her expertise on the employment relationship and workplace diversity and inclusion. She
was the lead author of Chapters 15 and 16, which have greatly benefited from her insights.
For these contributions, we are most grateful.
We also wish to express our appreciation for the colleagues who provided detailed
reviews for this edition. These reviewers were Hossein Bidgoli, California State University, Bakersfield; Ryan Fehr, Foster School of Business, University of Washington,
Seattle; Scott Jeffrey, Monmouth University; Eun-Hee Kim, Gabelli School of Business,
Fordham University; Jet Mboga, William Paterson University; Stephen P. Preacher, Southern Wesleyan University; and A. J. Stagliano, Saint Joseph’s University. Their insights
helped guide our revision.
Thanks are also due Daniel Jacobs of Loyola Marymount University; Samir Kumar
Barua of the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad and Mahendra R. Gurarathi
of Bentley University; Grishma Shah, Janet Rovenpor, and Musa Jafar of Manhattan
College; Robyn Linde of Rhode Island College and H. Richard Eisenbeis of the University of Southern Colorado Pueblo (retired); Cynthia E. Clark of Bentley University; and
Debra M. Staab, a freelance writer and researcher, who contributed cases to this edition.
We are grateful to several individuals have made specific research contributions to this
project. Denise Kleinrichert, of the Center for Ethical and Sustainable Business Management at San Francisco State University, provided new material on B Corporations and
social entrepreneurship for Chapter 3, which we appreciate. Natalie Hanna and Kelsey
Aemi of Duquesne University provided able research assistance. Thanks are due also to
Carolyn Roose Eagle, Ben Eagle, and Nate Marsh for research support. Emily Marsh, of
Colorbox Industries, provided graphic design services.
Debra M. Staab, in addition to authoring a case, provided research assistance and undertook the complex task of preparing the instructor’s resource manual, test bank, and other
ancillary materials. Her contributions have been invaluable.
In addition, we are grateful to the many colleagues who over the years have generously shared with us their insights into the theory and pedagogy of business and society. In particular, we would like to thank Cynthia E. Clark and Jill Brown of Bentley
University; Shawn Berman, Harry J. Van Buren III, Natalia Vidal, and Garima Sharma
of the University of New Mexico; Anke Arnaud of Embry Riddle Aeronautical University; Jennifer J. Griffin of Loyola University of Chicago; Ronald M. Roman, Asbjorn
Osland, Thomas Altura, and Matthew Maguire of San José State University; Heather
Elms of American University; Joseph A. Petrick of Wright State University; Kathleen
xi
xii Acknowledgments
Rehbein of Marquette University; Judith Schrempf-Stirling of the University of Geneva;
Michelle Westermann-Behaylo of the University of Amsterdam; Diane Swanson and
Bernie Hayen of Kansas State University; Cynthia M. Orms of Georgia College & State
University; Ali Al-Kazemi of Kuwait University; Sandra Waddock of Boston College;
Mary C. Gentile of the University of Virginia Darden School of Business; Michael E.
Johnson-Cramer and Jamie Hendry of Bucknell University; John Mahon and Stephanie
Welcomer of the University of Maine; Bradley Agle of Brigham Young University;
Gina Vega of Merrimack College; Craig Dunn and Brian Burton of Western Washington
University; Lori V. Ryan of San Diego State University; Bryan W. Husted of EGADE
Business School Monterrey; Sharon Livesey of Fordham University; Barry Mitnick of
the University of Pittsburgh; Virginia Gerde of Furman University; Matthew Drake of
Duquesne University; Robbin Derry of the University of Lethbridge; Jerry Calton of
the University of Hawaii-Hilo; Linda Klebe Treviño of Pennsylvania State University;
Mary Meisenhelter of York College of Pennsylvania; Amy Hillman and Gerald Keim
of Arizona State University; Barbara Altman of Texas A&M University Central Texas;
Randall Harris of Texas A&M University Corpus Christi; Richard Wokutch of Virginia
Tech University; Dawn Elm of University of St. Thomas; Lynda Brown of the University of Montana; Kathleen A. Getz of Loyola University – Maryland; Gordon P. Rands
of Western Illinois University; Paul S. Adler of the University of Southern California;
Linda C. Rodriguez of the University of South Carolina Aiken; Emmanuel Raufflet
of HEC Montreal; Bruce Paton of Menlo College; Smita Trivedi, Tom E. Thomas,
Geoffrey Desa, and Murray Silverman (retired), of San Francisco State University; Jacob
Park of Green Mountain College; Armand Gilinsky of Sonoma State University; and
Tara Ceranic Salinas of the University of San Diego.
These scholars’ dedication to the creative teaching of business and society has been a
continuing inspiration to us.
We wish to express our appreciation to James E. Post, a former author of this book, who
has continued to offer valuable intellectual guidance to this project. We also wish to note,
with sadness and gratitude, the passing of our mentor and a former author of this book,
William C. Frederick, in 2018. His ideas live on in this book.
We continue to be grateful to the excellent editorial and production team at McGrawHill. We offer special thanks to Laura Hurst Spell, our associate portfolio manager, for her
skillful leadership of this project. We also wish to recognize the able assistance of Marla
Sussman, executive editor, and of Jeni McAtee, content project manager, whose ability to
keep us on track and on time has been critical. Lisa Granger headed the excellent marketing team. Katie Reuter, content project manager (assessment); Susan K. Culbertson, buyer;
Richard Wright, copy editor; Traci Vaske, content licensing specialist; and Jessica Cuevas,
who designed the book cover, also played key roles. Each of these people has provided
professional contributions that we deeply value and appreciate.
As always, we are profoundly grateful for the ongoing support of our spouses, Paul
Roose and Sharon Green.
Anne T. Lawrence
James Weber
Brief Contents
PART ONE
Business in Society
14. Consumer Protection
1
1. The Corporation and Its Stakeholders 2
2. Managing Public Issues and Stakeholder
Relationships 25
3. Corporate Social Responsibility and
Citizenship 47
4. Business in a Globalized World 71
15. Employees and the Corporation
327
16. Managing a Diverse Workforce
350
17. Business and Its Suppliers
374
18. The Community and the
Corporation 396
19. Managing the Public and the Corporate
Reputation 419
CASES IN BUSINESS AND SOCIETY 441
PART TWO
Business and Ethics 93
5. Ethics and Ethical Reasoning 94
6. Organizational Ethics 115
PART THREE
Business and Public Policy 137
7. Business–Government Relations 138
8. Influencing the Political Environment 161
1. Profiting from Pain: Business and the
U.S. Opioid Epidemic 442
2. Wells Fargo’s Unauthorized Customer
Accounts 453
3. The Carlson Company and Protecting
Children in the Global Tourism
Industry 462
4. BP Blowout: The Aftermath of the Gulf
Oil Disaster 471
5. Google and the Right to Be
Forgotten 480
PART FOUR
Business and the Natural
Environment 187
9. Sustainable Development and Global
Business 188
10. Managing for Sustainability 211
6. General Motors and the Ignition Switch
Recalls 490
7. The Upper Big Branch Mine
Disaster 500
8. After Rana Plaza
510
9. The Boycott of Stoli Vodka
PART FIVE
Business and Technology 237
11. The Role of Technology
305
238
12. Regulating and Managing Technology 261
PART SIX
Business and Its Stakeholders 281
13. Shareholder Rights and Corporate
Governance 282
GLOSSARY
521
529
BIBLIOGRAPHY 542
INDEXES
Name
Subject
547
550
xiii
Contents
Stakeholder Dialogue
PART ONE
BUSINESS IN SOCIETY 1
CHAPTER 1
The Corporation and Its Stakeholders
Business and Society
5
The Stakeholder Theory of the Firm
The Stakeholder Concept 8
Different Kinds of Stakeholders
Stakeholder Analysis
2
4
A Systems Perspective
6
11
Corporate Power and Responsibility 49
Corporate Social Responsibility and Citizenship
The Origins of Corporate Social Responsibility
The Corporation’s Boundary-Spanning
Departments 19
The Dynamic Environment of Business 20
Creating Value in a Dynamic Environment 22
Summary 22
Key Terms 23
Internet Resources 23
Discussion Case: Insuring Uber’s App-On Gap 23
CHAPTER 2
Managing Public Issues and Stakeholder
Relationships 25
28
Competitive Intelligence 31
Stakeholder Materiality 32
The Issue Management Process
33
Organizing for Effective Issue Management
Stakeholder Engagement 38
51
51
Balancing Social, Economic, and Legal
Responsibilities 53
The Corporate Social Responsibility Question
53
Support for Corporate Social Responsibility 53
Concerns about Corporate Social Responsibility 57
Social Entrepreneurs and B Corporations 59
Management Systems for Corporate Social
Responsibility and Citizenship 60
Stages of Corporate Citizenship 62
Assessing and Reporting Social Performance 64
Social Audit Standards
Social Reporting 65
65
Summary 67
Key Terms 68
Internet Resources 68
Discussion Case: Corporate Social Responsibility at
Gravity Payments 69
CHAPTER 4
Business in a Globalized World 71
Identify Issue 33
Analyze Issue 34
Generate Options 35
Take Action 35
Evaluate Results 35
The Process of Globalization
36
Stages in the Business–Stakeholder Relationship 38
Drivers of Stakeholder Engagement 39
The Role of Social Media in Stakeholder Engagement 40
xiv
42
Summary 43
Key Terms 44
Internet Resources 44
Discussion Case: Businesses Respond to the
Movement for School Safety 44
CHAPTER 3
Corporate Social Responsibility and
Citizenship 47
9
Stakeholder Interests 12
Stakeholder Power 13
Stakeholder Coalitions 15
Stakeholder Mapping 16
Public Issues 26
Environmental Analysis
41
Stakeholder Networks 41
The Benefits of Engagement
72
Major Multinational Enterprises 73
International Financial and Trade Institutions
The Benefits and Costs of Globalization
75
78
Benefits of Globalization 78
Costs of Globalization 79
Doing Business in a Diverse World
81
Comparative Political and Economic Systems
82
Contents xv
Global Inequality and the Bottom of the
Pyramid 84
Information Technology Ethics
Supply Chain Ethics 122
Collaborative Partnerships for Global Problem
Solving 86
A Three-Sector World
Making Ethics Work in Corporations
Ethics in a Global Economy
90
CHAPTER 7
Business–Government Relations 138
95
How Business and Government Relate
97
101
Personal Gain and Selfish Interest 101
Competitive Pressures on Profits 102
Conflicts of Interest 102
Cross-Cultural Contradictions 102
The Core Elements of Ethical Character
103
106
Virtue Ethics: Pursuing a “Good” Life 107
Utility: Comparing Benefits and Costs 108
Rights: Determining and Protecting Entitlements 109
Justice: Is It Fair? 110
Applying Ethical Reasoning to Business Activities 110
The Moral Intensity of an Ethical Issue 111
Summary 112
Key Terms 112
Internet Resources 113
Discussion Case: LafargeHolcim and ISIS in
Syria 113
CHAPTER 6
Organizational Ethics
141
Elements of Public Policy 142
Types of Public Policy 145
Government Regulation of Business
147
Market Failure 147
Negative Externalities 148
Natural Monopolies 148
Ethical Arguments 148
Types of Regulation 149
The Effects of Regulation 154
Regulation in a Global Context 156
Summary 157
Key Terms 157
Internet Resources 157
Discussion Case: Should Facebook Be
Regulated? 158
CHAPTER 8
Influencing the Political Environment 161
Participants in the Political Environment
115
Corporate Ethical Climates 116
Business Ethics across Organizational
Functions 118
Accounting Ethics 118
Financial Ethics 119
Marketing Ethics 120
139
Seeking a Collaborative Partnership 139
Working in Opposition to Government 140
Legitimacy Issues 141
Government’s Public Policy Role
Managers’ Values 103
Spirituality in the Workplace 104
Managers’ Moral Development 105
Analyzing Ethical Problems in Business
133
BUSINESS AND PUBLIC POLICY 137
CHAPTER 5
Ethics and Ethical Reasoning 94
Why Ethical Problems Occur in Business
130
Summary 132
Key Terms 133
Internet Resources 133
Discussion Case: Equifax’s Data Breach
PART THREE
BUSINESS AND ETHICS 93
What Is Business Ethics? 96
Why Should Business Be Ethical?
123
129
Efforts to Curtail Unethical Practices
PART TWO
The Meaning of Ethics
123
Building Ethical Safeguards into the Company
87
Summary 89
Key Terms 89
Internet Resources 89
Discussion Case: Intel and Conflict Minerals
121
Business as a Political Participant
163
163
Influencing the Business–Government
Relationship 164
Corporate Political Strategy
Political Action Tactics
164
165
Promoting an Information Strategy 166
Promoting a Financial-Incentive Strategy 170
Promoting a Constituency-Building Strategy 175
xvi Contents
Levels of Political Involvement 178
Managing the Political Environment 179
Business Political Action: A Global Challenge 180
Summary 182
Key Terms 183
Internet Resources 183
Discussion Case: Political Action by the U.S. Steel
Industry, 2015–2018 183
BUSINESS AND THE NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT 187
CHAPTER 9
Sustainable Development and Global
Business 188
Cost Savings 229
Brand Differentiation 229
Technological Innovation 230
Reduction of Regulatory and Liability Risk
Strategic Planning 231
231
BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY
237
CHAPTER 11
The Role of Technology 238
Sustainable Development 190
Threats to the Earth’s Ecosystem 191
Forces of Change 192
The Earth’s Carrying Capacity 194
Technology Defined
239
Phases of Technology in Society
240
The Role of Technology in Our Daily Lives
196
241
The Presence of the Internet 241
Unwanted Technology Threats 243
Climate Change 196
Ozone Depletion 199
Resource Scarcity: Water and Land 199
Decline of Biodiversity 201
Threats to Marine Ecosystems 202
Public Access to and Use of Technology
245
The Digital Divide in the United States and
Worldwide 245
Mobile Telephones 246
Social Networking 248
Response of the International Business
Community 203
Summary 207
Key Terms 208
Internet Resources 208
Discussion Case: Clean Cooking
Sustainability Management as a Competitive
Advantage 228
PART FIVE
Business and Society in the Natural
Environment 190
Codes of Environmental Conduct
227
Summary 233
Key Terms 233
Internet Resources 234
Discussion Case: Hydraulic Fracturing—Can the
Environmental Impacts Be Reduced? 234
PART FOUR
Global Environmental Issues
Environmental Auditing and Reporting
Environmental Partnerships 228
Ethical Challenges Involving Technology
206
250
The Loss of Privacy 250
Free Speech Issues 251
Government Censorship of Free Speech 252
The Impact of Scientific Breakthroughs 253
208
CHAPTER 10
Managing for Sustainability
Genetically Engineered Foods 253
Sequencing of the Human Genome 255
Biotechnology and Stem Cell Research 256
Medical Breakthroughs 256
211
Role of Government 213
Major Areas of Environmental Regulation
Alternative Policy Approaches 218
213
Costs and Benefits of Environmental
Regulation 222
Managing for Sustainability 224
Stages of Corporate Environmental
Responsibility 224
The Ecologically Sustainable Organization
Sustainability Management in Practice
225
225
Summary 258
Key Terms 258
Internet Resources 258
Discussion Case: To Lock or Unlock Your Phone:
Personal Privacy or National Security 259
CHAPTER 12
Regulating and Managing Technology 261
Government Regulation of Technology
262
Contents xvii
The Role of Technology in Business
264
Access to Stakeholders’ Personal Information
E-Business 266
265
The Use of Robots and Artificial Intelligence at
Work 267
The Chief Information, Security, Technology
Officer 269
Cybercrime: A Threat to Organizations and the
Public 271
Exploring Why Hackers Hack
Costs of Cybercrime 272
271
Business Responses to Invasions of Information
Security 274
Government Efforts to Combat Cybercrime 275
Summary 276
Key Terms 277
Internet Resources 277
Discussion Case: The Arrival of Autonomous
Cars—Bright Future or Looming Threat? 278
BUSINESS AND ITS
STAKEHOLDERS 281
CHAPTER 13
Shareholder Rights and Corporate
Governance 282
Corporate Governance
286
289
Special Issue: Executive Compensation
Shareholder Activism 295
The Rise of Institutional Investors
Social Investment 297
Shareholder Lawsuits 298
291
296
Government Protection of Shareholder
Interests 299
Securities and Exchange Commission 299
Information Transparency and Disclosure 299
Insider Trading 300
Shareholders and the Corporation
Summary 302
Key Terms 302
Internet Resources 303
301
The Rights of Consumers 307
Self-Advocacy for Consumer Interests 308
How Government Protects Consumers 309
Goals of Consumer Laws 309
Major Consumer Protection Agencies
311
Consumer Privacy in the Digital Age 314
Using the Courts and Product Liability Laws
316
Strict Liability 317
Product Liability Reform and Alternative Dispute
Resolution 317
Positive Business Responses to Consumerism
320
Managing for Quality 320
Voluntary Industry Codes of Conduct 321
Consumer Affairs Departments 322
Product Recalls 322
The Employment Relationship
Workplace Rights 330
287
The Board of Directors 287
Principles of Good Governance
305
CHAPTER 15
Employees and the Corporation
283
Who Are Shareholders? 284
Objectives of Stock Ownership 285
Shareholders’ Legal Rights and Safeguards
CHAPTER 14
Consumer Protection
Consumerism’s Achievements 323
Summary 323
Key Terms 324
Internet Resources 324
Discussion Case: Volkswagen’s “Clean Diesel”
Campaign 324
PART SIX
Shareholders Around the World
Discussion Case: Corporate Governance and
Executive Misconduct at Wynn Resorts 303
327
329
The Right to Organize and Bargain
Collectively 330
The Right to a Safe and Healthy Workplace 333
Job Security and the Right to Due Process 334
Fair Wages and Income Inequality 337
The Right to Privacy in the Workplace 339
Electronic Monitoring 340
Romance in the Workplace 341
Employee Drug Use and Testing 342
Alcohol Abuse at Work 343
Employee Theft and Honesty Testing 344
The Right to Blow the Whistle and Free Speech in
the Workplace 345
Summary 347
Key Terms 347
Internet Resources 347
Discussion Case: The Ugly Side of Beautiful
Nails 348
xviii Contents
CHAPTER 16
Managing a Diverse Workforce
Community Relations
350
The Changing Face of the Workforce 351
Gender and Race in the Workplace 353
Women and Minorities at Work 353
The Gender and Racial Pay Gap 354
Where Women and Persons of Color Manage 356
Breaking the Glass Ceiling 356
Women and Minority Business Ownership 359
Government’s Role in Securing Equal Employment
Opportunity 360
Equal Employment Opportunity 360
Affirmative Action 361
Sexual and Racial Harassment 362
What Business Can Do: Diversity and Inclusion
Policies and Practices 364
Balancing Work and Life 367
Child Care and Elder Care 367
Work Flexibility 368
Summary 370
Key Terms 371
Internet Resources 371
Discussion Case: Apple and the Dreamers
401
Economic Development 401
Housing 402
Aid to Minority, Women, and Disabled Veteran-Owned
Enterprises 402
Disaster, Terrorism, and War Relief 403
Corporate Giving
403
Forms of Corporate Giving 407
Priorities in Corporate Giving 409
Corporate Giving in a Strategic Context 410
Measuring the Return on Social Investment 412
Building Collaborative Partnerships 414
Summary 415
Key Terms 415
Internet Resources 416
Discussion Case: Salesforce’s 1+1+1 Integrated
Philanthropy Model 416
CHAPTER 19
Managing the Public and the Corporate
Reputation 419
The General Public 420
What Is Reputation? 421
371
Why Does Reputation Matter?
422
CHAPTER 17
Business and Its Suppliers 374
The Public Relations Department
424
Suppliers 376
Social, Ethical, and Environmental Issues in Global
Supply Chains 378
Brand Management 426
Crisis Management 427
Engaging Key Stakeholders with Specific
Tactics 430
Public Relations in the Internet and Social
Media Age 424
Social Issues 379
Ethical Issues 380
Environmental Issues 382
Supply Chain Risk 383
Executive Visibility 431
User-Generated Content 433
Paid Content 434
Event Sponsorship 434
Public Service Announcements
Image Advertisements 436
Private Regulation of the Business–Supplier
Relationship 384
Supply Chain Auditing 387
436
Supplier Development and Capability Building 389
Summary 392
Key Terms 393
Internet Resources 393
Discussion Case: IKEA’s Sustainable Cotton Supply
Chain 393
Summary 438
Key Terms 438
Internet Resources 438
Discussion Case: United Airlines—Navigating a
Social Media Storm 439
CHAPTER 18
The Community and the Corporation
1. Profiting from Pain: Business and the
U.S. Opioid Epidemic 442
The Business–Community Relationship
396
398
The Business Case for Community Involvement
399
CASES IN BUSINESS AND SOCIETY 441
2. Wells Fargo’s Unauthorized Customer
Accounts 453
Contents xix
3. The Carlson Company and Protecting
Children in the Global Tourism
Industry 462
4. BP Blowout: The Aftermath of the Gulf
Oil Disaster 471
5. Google and the Right to Be
Forgotten 480
6. General Motors and the Ignition Switch
Recalls 490
7. The Upper Big Branch Mine
Disaster 500
8. After Rana Plaza
510
9. The Boycott of Stoli Vodka 521
Glossary
529
Bibliography 542
Indexes
Name 547
Subject 550
P A R T
O N E
Business in Society
C H A P T E R
O N E
The Corporation
and Its Stakeholders
Business corporations have complex relationships with many individuals and organizations in society.
The term stakeholder refers to all those that affect, or are affected by, the actions of the firm. An
important part of management’s role is to identify a firm’s relevant stakeholders and understand the
nature of their interests, power, and alliances with one another. Building positive and mutually beneficial relationships across organizational boundaries can help enhance a company’s reputation and
address critical social and ethical challenges. In a world of fast-paced globalization, shifting public
expectations and government policies, growing ecological concerns, and new technologies, managers face the difficult challenge of achieving economic results while simultaneously creating value for
all of their diverse stakeholders.
This Chapter Focuses on These Key Learning Objectives:
LO 1-1 Understanding the relationship between business and society and the ways in which business and
society are part of an interactive system.
LO 1-2 Considering the purpose of the modern corporation.
LO 1-3 Knowing what a stakeholder is and who a corporation’s market and nonmarket and internal and
external stakeholders are.
LO 1-4 Conducting a stakeholder analysis and understanding the basis of stakeholder interests and power.
LO 1-5 Recognizing the diverse ways in which modern corporations organize internally to interact with
various stakeholders.
LO 1-6 Analyzing the forces of change that continually reshape the business and society relationship.
2
Chapter 1 The Corporation and Its Stakeholders 3
Amazon—which some have called the “Earth’s biggest store”—is an important part of
many of our lives. We browse on Amazon, watch on Amazon, and buy on Amazon. We
freely disclose to Amazon our wishes, interests, and willingness to pay. You may well have
purchased or rented this textbook from Amazon.
In 2018, Amazon was the largest Internet retailer in the world, measured both by annual
revenue ($178 billion) and market capitalization (more than $800 billion). It was the
second largest private employer in the United States (after Walmart), with more than
540,000 employees (not counting the additional 120,000 or so temporary workers the company brought on each year during the busy holiday season).1 From its start in 1994 as a
scrappy Seattle start-up selling books online, Amazon had grown at an astonishing pace; in
2017, Amazon was responsible for fully 70 percent of all growth in U.S. online commerce.2
By 2018, the company’s founder and CEO, Jeff Bezos, had become the world’s richest
person, with a net worth greater than $100 billion.3 Shareholders in the company had been
richly rewarded; in early 2018, the price of Amazon’s stock was more than 12 times higher
than it had been a decade earlier. The company was enormously popular with consumers,
who turned to Amazon for one-click convenience, free and speedy delivery, and the ability
to compare a seemingly endless assortment of products on the basis of price and reviews.
Small businesses affiliated with Amazon Marketplace were able to tap into the company’s
global e-commerce platform and unrivaled logistics to reach customers they never could
have reached before. No doubt, many had benefited from Amazon’s success.
Yet the company had also become the target of criticism from many quarters, charged
with destroying brick-and-mortar businesses, relentlessly driving their own employees,
unfairly besting competitors, and pressuring communities for concessions. Consider that:
∙ Much of Amazon’s success had come at the expense of brick-and-mortar stores. Iconic
retailers—such as Macy’s, JCPenney, and Target—had shed thousands of jobs as Amazon
attracted ever-larger slices of consumer spending. A leading economist calculated that
the rise of online commerce had caused the cumulative loss of 1.2 million retailing
jobs—positions such as cashiers, salespeople, and stock clerks—in the United States.4
Many of these jobs were held by women and minorities (who made up 60 percent and
40 percent, respectively, of department store employees).5 Traditional retailing, concluded
Scott Galloway, the author of The Four: The Hidden DNA of Amazon, Apple, Facebook,
and Google, had been “ravaged and depopulated by a single player”—Amazon.6
∙ Amazon’s own employees, by some accounts, were subject to an unusually punishing
work culture. An investigative report by The New York Times, based on interviews with
more than 100 current and former white-collar employees, found a pattern of setting
“unreasonably high” performance standards, continually monitoring performance, and
weeding out employees in a “rank and yank” system that one called “purposeful Darwinism.” Turnover rates were among the highest in the Fortune 500. Said one former
marketer, “Amazon is where overachievers go to feel bad about themselves.”7
1
“Amazon Is Now the Size of a Small Country,” Business Insider, January 16, 2018.
“U.S. E-Commerce Sales Grow 16.0% in 2017,” Internet Retailer, at www.digitalcommerce360.com, February 16, 2018.
3
“Jeff Bezos Is Now the Richest Person in History,” http://money.cnn.com, January 9, 2018.
4
Michael Feroli, chief U.S. economist at J.P. Morgan, cited in “Amazon to Add 100,000 Jobs as Brick-and-Mortar Retail Crumbles,” The New York Times, January 12, 2017.
5
“The Silent Crisis of Retail Employment,” The Atlantic, April 18, 2017, and “Decline in Retail Jobs Felt Entirely by Women,”
Institute for Women’s Policy Research, December 2017.
6
Scott Galloway, The Four: Scott Galloway, The Four: The Hidden DNA of Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and Google (New York:
Penguin, 2017), Chapter 2.
7
“Inside Amazon: Wrestling Big Ideas in a Bruising Workplace,” The New York Times, August 15, 2015.
2
4
Part One Business in Society
∙ Amazon’s control of both online and voice-activated search gave it powerful advantages—
leading to what some saw as unfair competition. One study found that under some conditions, products displayed under “customers who bought this item also bought” were
dominated by Amazon’s own private-label brands.8 Alexa, Amazon’s voice-activated
virtual assistant on Echo and other digital devices, also gave the company an edge. The
consulting firm Bain & Company found that Alexa’s recommendations were biased
toward “Amazon’s Choice” and the company’s own private-label products (after products the customer had previously ordered). “The ‘endless aisle’ just got a lot smaller,”
Bain concluded.9
∙ In 2017, Amazon announced it would invest $5 billion to open a second North American headquarters outside Seattle, promising to create 50,000 new jobs paying $100,000
or more. This was a tantalizing prospect, and 238 cities and regions submitted proposals, with at least six offering financial incentives of $1 billion or more. Some public
officials thought this was well worth it, but others thought taxpayer money should not
be used to subsidize such a successful company. “Blindly giving away the farm isn’t our
style,” said the mayor of San Antonio, Texas, which dropped out of the race.10
Amazon’s experience illustrates, on a particularly large scale, the challenges of managing successfully in a complex network of stakeholders. The company’s actions affected not
only itself, but also many other people, groups, and organizations in society. Customers,
employees, business partners and suppliers, competitors, shareholders, creditors, governments, and local communities all had a stake in Amazon’s decisions.
Every modern company, whether small or large, is part of a vast global business system. Whether a firm has 50 employees or, like Amazon, more than half a million—its
links to customers, suppliers, employees, and communities are certain to be numerous,
diverse, and vital to its success. This is why the relationship between business and society
is important for you to understand as both a citizen and a manager.
Business and Society
Business today is arguably the most dominant institution in the world. The term business
refers here to any organization that is engaged in making a product or providing a service for
a profit. Consider that in the United States today there are 6 million businesses, according
to government estimates, and in the world as a whole, there are uncounted millions more.
Of course, these businesses vary greatly in size and impact. They range from a woman who
helps support her family by selling handmade tortillas by the side of the road in Mexico
City for a few pesos, to ExxonMobil, a huge corporation that employs almost 75,000 workers and earns annual revenues approaching $237 billion in almost every nation in the world.
Society, in its broadest sense, refers to human beings and to the social structures they
collectively create. In a more specific sense, the term is used to refer to segments of
humankind, such as members of a particular community, nation, or interest group. As a set
of organizations created by humans, business is clearly a part of society. At the same time,
it is also a distinct entity, separated from the rest of society by clear boundaries. Business
8
“The Antitrust Case Against Facebook, Google, and Amazon,” The Wall Street Journal, January 16, 2018, and “How
Amazon Steers Shoppers to Its Own Products,” The Wall Street Journal, June 23, 2018; see also Galloway, op. cit.
9
“Dreaming of an Amazon Christmas?” Bain & Company, November 9, 2017.
10
“Amazon Just Revealed the Top Cities for HQ2—Here Are the Ones Throwing Hundreds of Millions to Land It,” Business
Insider, January 18, 2018, and “As Cities Woo Amazon to Build Second Headquarters, Incentives Are Key,” The Wall Street
Journal, October 19, 2017.
Chapter 1 The Corporation and Its Stakeholders 5
FIGURE 1.1
Business and Society:
An Interactive
System
Society
Business
is engaged in ongoing exchanges with its external environment across these dividing lines.
For example, businesses recruit workers, buy supplies, and borrow money; they also sell
products, donate time, and pay taxes. This book is broadly concerned with the relationship between business and society. A simple diagram of the relationship between the two
appears in Figure 1.1.
As the Amazon example that opened this chapter illustrates, business and society are
highly interdependent. Business activities impact other activities in society, and actions
by various social actors and governments continuously affect business. To manage these
interdependencies, managers need an understanding of their company’s key relationships
and how the social and economic system of which they are a part affects, and is affected
by, their decisions.
A Systems Perspective
General systems theory, first introduced in the 1940s, argues that all organisms are open to,
and interact with, their external environments. Although most organisms have clear boundaries, they cannot be understood in isolation, but only in relationship to their surroundings.
This simple but powerful idea can be applied to many disciplines. For example, in botany,
the growth of a plant cannot be explained without reference to soil, light, oxygen, moisture,
and other characteristics of its environment. As applied to management theory, the systems
concept implies that business firms (social organisms) are embedded in a broader social
structure (external environment) with which they constantly interact. Corporations have
ongoing boundary exchanges with customers, governments, competitors, suppliers, communities, and many other individuals and groups. Just as good soil, water, and light help a
plant grow, positive interactions with society benefit a business firm.
Like biological organisms, moreover, businesses must adapt to changes in the environment. Plants growing in low-moisture environments must develop survival strategies, like
the cactus that evolves to store water in its leaves. Similarly, a telecommunications company in a newly deregulated market must learn to compete by changing the products and
services it offers. The key to business survival is often this ability to adapt effectively to
changing conditions. In business, systems theory provides a powerful tool to help managers
conceptualize the relationship between their companies and their external environments.
6
Part One Business in Society
Systems theory helps us understand how business and society, taken together, form
an interactive social system. Each needs the other, and each influences the other. They
are entwined so completely that any action taken by one will surely affect the other.
They are both separate and connected. Business is part of society, and society penetrates
far and often into business decisions. In a world where global communication is rapidly
expanding, the connections are closer than ever before. Throughout this book we discuss
examples of organizations and people that are grappling with the challenges of, and
helping to shape, business–society relationships.
The Stakeholder Theory of the Firm
What is the purpose of the modern corporation? To whom, or what, should the firm be responsible?11 No question is more central to the relationship between business and society.
In the shareholder theory of the firm (sometimes also called the ownership theory), the
firm is seen as the property of its owners. The purpose of the firm is to maximize its longterm market value, that is, to make the most money it can for shareholders who own stock
in the company. Managers and boards of directors are agents of shareholders and have no
obligations to others, other than those directly specified by law. In this view, owners’ interests are paramount and take precedence over the interests of others.
A contrasting view, called the stakeholder theory of the firm, argues that corporations
serve a broad public purpose: to create value for society. All companies must make a profit
for their owners; indeed, if they did not, they would not long survive. However, corporations create many other kinds of value as well, such as professional development for their
employees and innovative new products for their customers. In this view, corporations
have multiple obligations, and all stakeholders’ interests must be taken into account. This
perspective was well expressed by Laurence Fink, the CEO of BlackRock, a global firm
that manages more than $5 trillion worth of assets for its clients. In his 2018 letter to
CEOs, Fink stated that “. . . every company must not only deliver financial performance,
but also show how it makes a positive contribution to society. Companies must benefit all
of their stakeholders, including shareholders, employees, customers, and the communities
in which they operate.”12
Supporters of the stakeholder theory of the firm make three core arguments for their
position: descriptive, instrumental, and normative.13
The descriptive argument says that the stakeholder view is simply a more realistic
description of how companies really work. Managers have to pay keen attention, of course,
to their quarterly and annual financial performance. Keeping Wall Street satisfied by managing for growth—thereby attracting more investors and increasing the stock price—is
a core part of any top manager’s job. But the job of management is much more complex
than this. In order to produce consistent results, managers have to be concerned with producing high-quality and innovative products and services for their customers, attracting
11
For summaries of contrasting theories of the purpose of the firm, see Margaret M. Blair, “Whose Interests Should Corporations Serve,” in Margaret M. Blair and Bruce K. MacLaury, Ownership and Control: Rethinking Corporate Governance for the
Twenty-First Century (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1995), Ch. 6, pp. 202–34; and James E. Post, Lee E. Preston,
and Sybille Sachs, Redefining the Corporation: Stakeholder Management and Organizational Wealth (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford
University Press, 2002).
12
“Larry Fink’s Annual [2018] Letter to CEOs: A Sense of Purpose,” at www.blackrock.com.
13
The descriptive, instrumental, and normative arguments are summarized in Thomas Donaldson and Lee E. Preston, “The
Stakeholder Theory of the Corporation: Concepts, Evidence and Implications,” Academy of Management Review 20, no. 1
(1995), pp. 65–71. See also, Post, Preston, and Sachs, Redefining the Corporation, Ch. 1.
Chapter 1 The Corporation and Its Stakeholders 7
and retaining talented employees, and complying with a plethora of complex government
regulations. As a practical matter, managers direct their energies toward all stakeholders,
not just owners.
In what became known as the “dollar store wars,” two companies made
competing bids to buy Family Dollar, a U.S. discount retail chain based in
Charlotte, North Carolina—each with very different consequences for
stakeholders. One suitor, Dollar Tree, offered $76.50 per share for the company,
while the other, Dollar General, offered $80—seemingly a better deal for
shareholders. But the Dollar General deal faced likely government antitrust
scrutiny and would probably have required the closure of thousands of stores,
throwing employees out of work and depriving low-income communities of
access to a discount store. In the end, after considering the impact on all
stakeholders, Family Dollar’s management recommended the lower-priced offer,
and three-quarters of its shareholders agreed.14
The instrumental argument says that stakeholder management is more effective as a
corporate strategy. A wide range of studies have shown that companies that behave responsibly toward multiple stakeholder groups perform better financially, over the long run,
than those that do not. (This empirical evidence is further explored in Chapter 3.) These
findings make sense, because good relationships with stakeholders are themselves a source
of value for the firm. Attention to stakeholders’ rights and concerns can help produce motivated employees, satisfied customers, committed suppliers, and supportive communities,
all good for the company’s bottom line.
The normative argument says that stakeholder management is simply the right thing to
do. Corporations have great power and control vast resources; these privileges carry with
them a duty toward all those affected by a corporation’s actions. Moreover, all stakeholders, not just owners, contribute something of value to the corporation. A skilled engineer
at Microsoft who applies his or her creativity to solving a difficult programming problem
has made a kind of investment in the company, even if it is not a monetary investment. Any
individual or group who makes a contribution, or takes a risk, has a moral right to some
claim on the corporation’s rewards.15
A basis for both the shareholder and stakeholder theories of the firm exists in law. The
legal term fiduciary means a person who exercises power on behalf of another, that is, who
acts as the other’s agent. In U.S. law, managers are considered fiduciaries of the owners
of the firm (its shareholders) and have an obligation to run the business in their interest.
These legal concepts are clearly consistent with the shareholder theory of the firm. However, other laws and court cases have given managers broad latitude in the exercise of
their fiduciary duties. In the United States (where corporations are chartered not by the
federal government but by the states), most states have passed laws that permit managers
to take into consideration a wide range of other stakeholders’ interests, including those of
employees, customers, creditors, suppliers, and communities. (Benefit corporations, firms
with a special legal status that obligates them to do so, are further discussed in Chapter 3.)
14
“Family Dollar Shareholders Approve Sale to Dollar Tree,” Charlotte Observer, January 22, 2015.
Abe Zakhem and Daniel E. Palmer, “Normative Stakeholder Theory,” in David M. Wasieleski and James Weber (eds.),
Stakeholder Management, Business and Society 360: Volume 1, pages 49–74 (Bingley, United Kingdom: Emerald Publishing
Ltd., 2017). Another formulation of this point has been offered by Robert Phillips, who argues for a principle of stakeholder
fairness. This states that “when people are engaged in a cooperative effort and the benefits of this cooperative effort are
accepted, obligations are created on the part of the group accepting the benefit” [i.e., the business firm]. Robert Phillips,
Stakeholder Theory and Organizational Ethics (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2003), p. 9 and Ch. 5.
15
8
Part One Business in Society
In addition, many federal laws extend specific protections to various groups of stakeholders, such as those that prohibit discrimination against employees or grant consumers the
right to sue if harmed by a product.
In other nations, the legal rights of nonowner stakeholders are often more fully developed than in the United States. For example, a number of European countries—including
Germany, Norway, Austria, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden—require public companies
to include employee members on their boards of directors, so that their interests will be
explicitly represented. Under the European Union’s so-called harmonization statutes, managers are specifically permitted to take into account the interests of customers, employees,
creditors, and others.
In short, while the law requires managers to act on behalf of shareholders, it also gives
them wide discretion—and in some instances requires them—to manage on behalf of the
full range of stakeholder groups. The next section provides a more formal definition and an
expanded discussion of the stakeholder concept.
The Stakeholder Concept
The term stakeholder refers to persons and groups that affect, or are affected by, an organization’s decisions, policies, and operations.16 The word stake originally meant a pointed
stick or post. The word later became used as a verb, as when a person was said to mark
territory with a stake to assert ownership—that is, to stake a claim.17 In the context of management theory, stake is used more abstractly to mean an interest in—or claim on—a business enterprise. Those with a stake in the firm’s actions include such diverse groups as
customers, employees, shareholders (also called stockholders), governments, suppliers,
professional and trade associations, social and environmental activists, and nongovernmental organizations. The term stakeholder is not the same as stockholder, although the
words sound similar. Stockholders—individuals or organizations that own shares of a company’s stock—are one of several kinds of stakeholders.
Business organizations are embedded in networks involving many participants. Each
of these participants has a relationship with the firm, based on ongoing interactions. Each
of them shares, to some degree, in both the risks and rewards of the firm’s activities. And
each has some kind of claim on the firm’s resources and attention, based on law, moral
right, or both. The number of these stakeholders and the variety of their interests can be
large, making a company’s decisions very complex, as the Amazon example illustrates.
Managers make good decisions when they pay attention to the effects of their decisions on stakeholders, as well as stakeholders’ effects on the company. On the positive
side, strong relationships between a corporation and its stakeholders are an asset that adds
value. On the negative side, some companies disregard stakeholders’ interests, either out
of the belief that the stakeholder is wrong or out of the misguided notion that an unhappy
customer, employee, or regulator does not matter. Such attitudes often prove costly to the
company involved. Today, for example, companies know that they cannot locate a factory
or store in a community that strongly objects. They also know that making a product that is
perceived as unsafe invites lawsuits and jeopardizes market share.
16
The term stakeholder was first introduced in 1963 but was not widely used in the management literature until the publication of R. Edward Freeman’s Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach (Marshfield, MA: Pitman, 1984). For a
comprehensive review of the stakeholder management literature, see Samantha Miles, “Stakeholder Theory Classification,
Definitions and Essential Contestability,” in David M. Wasieleski and James Weber (eds.) Stakeholder Management, Business
and Society 360: Volume 1, pages 21–48 (Bingley, United Kingdom: Emerald Publishing Limited, 2017).
17
“Origin and Meaning of Stake,” Online Etymology Dictionary, at www.etymonline.com.
Exhibit 1.A
Are Managers Stakeholders?
Are managers, especially top executives, stakeholders? This has been a contentious issue in stakeholder
theory.
On one hand, the answer clearly is “yes” Like other stakeholders, managers are impacted by the firm’s
decisions. As employees of the firm, managers receive compensation—often very generous compensation,
as shown in Chapter 13. Their managerial roles confer opportunities for professional advancement, social
status, and power over others. Managers benefit from the company’s success and are hurt by its failure. For
these reasons, they might properly be classified as employees.
On the other hand, top executives are agents of the firm and are responsible for acting on its behalf. In
the stakeholder theory of the firm, their role is to integrate stakeholder interests, rather than to promote their
own more narrow, selfish goals. For these reasons, they might properly be classified as representatives of the
firm itself, rather than as one of its stakeholders.
Management theory has long recognized that these two roles of managers potentially conflict. The main
job of executives is to act for the company, but all too often they act primarily for themselves. Consider, for
example, the many top executives of Lehman Brothers, MF Global, and Merrrill Lynch, who enriched themselves personally at the expense of shareholders, employees, customers, and other stakeholders. The challenge of persuading top managers to act in the firm’s best interest is further discussed in Chapter 13.
Different Kinds of Stakeholders
Business interacts with society in many diverse ways, and a company’s relationships with
various stakeholders differ.
Market stakeholders are those that engage in economic transactions with the company
as it carries out its purpose of providing society with goods and services. Each relationship
between a business and one of its market stakeholders is based on a unique transaction, or
two-way exchange. Shareholders invest in the firm and in return receive the potential for
dividends and capital gains. Creditors loan money and collect payments of interest and
principal. Employees contribute their skills and knowledge in exchange for wages, benefits, and the opportunity for personal satisfaction and professional development. In return
for payment, suppliers provide raw materials, energy, services, finished products, and other
inputs; and wholesalers, distributors, and retailers engage in market transactions with the
firm as they help move the product from plant to sales outlets to customers. All businesses
need customers who are willing to buy their products or services.
The puzzling question of whether or not managers should be classified as stakeholders
along with other employees is discussed in Exhibit 1.A.
Nonmarket stakeholders, by contrast, are people and groups who—although they do
not engage in direct economic exchange with the firm—are nonetheless affected by or
can affect its actions. Nonmarket stakeholders include the community, various levels of
government, nongovernmental organizations, business support groups, competitors, and
the general public. Nonmarket stakeholders are not necessarily less important than others,
simply because they do not engage in direct economic exchange with a business. On the
contrary, interactions with such groups can be critical to a firm’s success or failure, as
shown in the following example.
In late 2017, a company called Energy Management Inc. (EMI) said it would finally
call off its sixteen-year effort to build a wind farm off the shore of Cape Cod,
Massachusetts, to supply clean, renewable power to New England customers. The
project, called Cape Wind, had generated intense opposition from residents of Cape
9
10
Part One Business in Society
Cod and nearby islands, who were concerned that its 130 wind turbines would spoil
the view and get in the way of boats. A nonprofit group called Save Our Sound filed
dozens of lawsuits, charging possible harm to wildlife, increased electricity rates,
and danger to aircraft. Local utilities had withdrawn their commitments to buy
power from the wind farm, and state regulators had denied permission for a power
line connection to the mainland. “We were kept in a repeated sudden death period,”
said the company’s discouraged owner, using a football analogy. “And the goal
posts kept moving.”18
In this instance, various stakeholders were able to block the company’s plans completely—
even though many did not have a market relationship with it.
Theorists also distinguish between internal stakeholders and external stakeholders.
Internal stakeholders are those, such as employees and managers, who are employed by the
firm. They are “inside” the firm, in the sense that they contribute their effort and skill, usually at a company worksite. External stakeholders, by contrast, are those who—although
they may have important transactions with the firm—are not directly employed by it.
The classification of government as a nonmarket stakeholder has been controversial
in stakeholder theory. Most theorists say that government is a nonmarket stakeholder (as
does this book) because it does not normally conduct any direct market exchanges (buying
and selling) with business. However, money often flows from business to government in
the form of taxes and fees, and sometimes from government to business in the form of
subsidies or incentives. Moreover, some businesses—defense contractors for example—do
sell directly to the government and receive payment for goods and services rendered. For
this reason, a few theorists have called government a market stakeholder of business. And,
in a few cases, the government may take a direct ownership stake in a company—as the
U.S. government did after the financial crisis of 2008–09 when it invested in several banks
and auto companies, becoming a shareholder of these firms. Government also has special
influence over business because of its ability to charter and tax corporations, as well as
make laws that regulate their activities. The unique relationship between government and
business is discussed throughout this book.
Other stakeholders also have some market and some nonmarket characteristics. For
example, business support groups, such as the Chamber of Commerce, are normally considered a nonmarket stakeholder. However, companies may support the Chamber of Commerce with their membership dues—a market exchange. Communities are a nonmarket
stakeholder, but receive taxes, philanthropic contributions, and other monetary benefits
from businesses. These subtleties are further explored in later chapters.
Modern stakeholder theory recognizes that most business firms are embedded in a complex web of stakeholders, many of which have independent relationships with each other.19
In this view, a business firm and its stakeholders are best visualized as an interconnected
network. Imagine, for example, an electronics company, based in the United States, that
produces smartphones, tablets, and music players. The firm employs people to design,
engineer, and market its devices to customers in many countries. Shares in the company
18
“Now It’s Official: Cape Wind Project Dead,” Boston Globe, December 1, 2017, and “After 16 Years, Hopes for Cape Cod
Wind Farm Float Away,” The New York Times, December 19, 2017. The story of the opposition to Cape Wind is told in Robert
Whitcomb and Wendy Williams, Cape Wind: Money, Celebrity, Energy, Class, Politics, and the Battle for Our Energy Future
(New York: PublicAffairs, 2008).
19
Timothy J. Rowley, “The Power of and in Stakeholder Networks,” in David M. Wasieleski and James Weber (eds.) Stakeholder Management, Business and Society 360: Volume 1, pp. 101–122 (Bingley, United Kingdom: Emerald Publishing
Limited, 2017).
Chapter 1 The Corporation and Its Stakeholders 11
FIGURE 1.2
A Firm and its
Stakeholders
Employees
Nongovernmental
organizations
Creditors
Customers
Business
Firm
Shareholders
Governments
Competitors
Suppliers
are owned by investors around the world, including many of its own employees and managers. Production is carried out by suppliers in Asia. Banks provide credit to the company,
as well as to other companies. Competing firms sell their products to some of the same
customers, and also contract production to some of the same Asian suppliers. Nongovernmental organizations may seek to lobby the government concerning the firm’s practices,
and may count some employees among their members. A visual representation of this
company and its stakeholders is shown in Figure 1.2.
As Figure 1.2 suggests, some individuals or groups may play multiple stakeholder roles.
Some theorists use the term role sets to refer to this phenomenon. For example, a person
may work at a company, but also live in the surrounding community, own shares of company stock in his or her 401(k) retirement account, and even purchase the company’s products from time to time. This person has several stakes in a company’s actions.
Later sections of this book (especially Chapters 13 through 19) will discuss in more
detail the relationship between business and its various stakeholders.
Stakeholder Analysis
An important part of the modern manager’s job is to identify relevant stakeholders and to
understand both their interests and the power they may have to assert these interests. This
process is called stakeholder analysis. The organization from whose perspective the analysis is conducted is called the focal organization.
12
Part One Business in Society
FIGURE 1.3
Who are the relevant stakeholders?
The Four Key
Questions of
Stakeholder Analysis
What are the interests of each stakeholder?
What is the power of each stakeholder?
How are coalitions likely to form?
The first step of a stakeholder analysis is for managers of the focal organization to
identify the issue at hand. For example, in the Cape Wind situation discussed earlier in this
chapter, Energy Management Inc. had to analyze how to win regulatory approval for the
construction of its wind farm. Once the issue is determined, managers must ask four key
questions, as discussed below and summarized in Figure 1.3.
Who are the relevant stakeholders?
The first question requires management to identify and map the relevant stakeholders.
Exhibit 1.B, which appears later in this chapter, provides a guide. However, not all stakeholders listed will be relevant in every management situation. For example, a privately held
firm will not have shareholders. Some businesses sell directly to customers online, and
therefore will not have retailers. In other situations, a firm may have a stakeholder—say,
a creditor that has loaned money—but this group is not relevant to a particular issue that
management faces.
But stakeholder analysis involves more than simply identifying stakeholders; it also
involves understanding the nature of their interests, power, legitimacy, and links with one
another.
Stakeholder Interests
What are the interests of each stakeholder?
Each stakeholder has a unique relationship to the organization, and managers must respond
accordingly. Stakeholder interests are, essentially, the nature of each group’s stake. What
are their concerns, and what do they want from their relationship with the firm?20
Shareholders, for their part, have an ownership interest in the firm. In exchange for their
investment, shareholders expect to receive dividends and, over time, capital appreciation.
The economic health of the corporation affects these people financially; their personal
wealth—and often, their retirement security—is at stake. They may also seek to achieve
social objectives through their choice of investments. Customers, for their part, are most
20
A full discussion of the interests of stakeholders may be found in R. Edward Freeman, Ethical Theory and Business
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994).
Chapter 1 The Corporation and Its Stakeholders 13
interested in gaining fair value and quality in exchange for the purchase price of goods and
services. Suppliers wish to obtain profitable orders, use their capacity efficiently, and build
stable relationships with their business customers. Employees, in exchange for their time
and effort, want to receive fair compensation and an opportunity to develop their job skills.
Governments, public interest groups, and local communities have another sort of relationship with the company. In general, their stake is broader than the financial stake of owners,
customers, and suppliers. They may wish to protect the environment, assure human rights,
or advance other broad social interests. Managers need to understand these complex and
often intersecting stakeholder interests.
Stakeholder Power
What is the power of each stakeholder?
Stakeholder power means the ability to use resources to make an event happen or to secure
a desired outcome. Stakeholders have five different kinds of power: voting power, economic power, political power, legal power, and informational power.
Voting power means that the stakeholder has a legitimate right to cast a vote. Shareholders typically have voting power proportionate to the percentage of the company’s stock
they own. They typically have an opportunity to vote on such major decisions as mergers
and acquisitions, the composition of the board of directors, and other issues that may come
before the annual meeting. (Shareholder voting power should be distinguished from the
voting power exercised by citizens, which is discussed below.)
For example, Starboard Value LP, a New York-based hedge fund, used its voting
power as a shareholder to force change in a company it had invested in. Starboard
bought more than 10 percent of the shares of Mellanox Technologies, an Israeli
semiconductor company, and called for radical change, slamming management for
“weak execution,” “excessive spending,” and “missed growth opportunities.” When
Mellanox did not respond aggressively enough, in 2018 Starboard and its allies
fielded their own slate of nominees in the election for the board of directors and
organized support from other voting shareholders. The company eventually compromised with Starboard, agreeing to add two of the activists’ nominees to the
board and a third if performance goals were not met. In recent years, activist investors like Starboard Value have won one board seat for every two board election
campaigns they have waged.21
Suppliers, customers, employees, and other stakeholders have economic power with the
company. Suppliers, for example, can withhold supplies or refuse to fill orders if a company fails to meet its contractual responsibilities. Customers may refuse to buy a company’s products or services if the company acts improperly. They can boycott products if they
believe the goods are too expensive, poorly made, or unsafe. Employees, for their part, can
refuse to work under certain conditions, a form of economic power known as a strike or
slowdown. Economic power often depends on how well organized a stakeholder group is.
For example, workers who are organized into unions usually have more economic power
than do workers who try to negotiate individually with their employers.
Governments exercise political power through legislation, regulations, or lawsuits.
While government agencies act directly, other stakeholders use their political power
21
“Mellanox, Starboard Settle on New Board Members,” Reuters, June 19, 2018; “Starboard Value to Launch Proxy Fight for
Entire Board at Mellanox,” The Wall Street Journal, January 17, 2018; and “Review and Analysis of 2017 U.S. Shareholder
Activism,” Sullivan & Cromwell LLP, March 26, 2018.
14
Part One Business in Society
indirectly by urging government to use its powers by passing new laws or enacting regulations. Citizens may also vote for candidates that support their views with respect to government laws and regulations affecting business, a different kind of voting power than the one
discussed above. Stakeholders may also exercise political power directly, as when social,
environmental, or community activists organize to protest a particular corporate action.
Stakeholders have legal power when they bring suit against a company for damages,
based on harm caused by the firm; for instance, lawsuits brought by customers for damages
caused by defective products, brought by employees for damages caused by workplace
injury, or brought by environmentalists for damages caused by pollution or harm to species
or habitat. After the mortgage lender Countrywide collapsed, many institutional shareholders, such as state pension funds, sued Bank of America (which had acquired Countrywide) to recoup some of their losses.
Finally, stakeholders have informational power when they have access to valuable data,
facts, or details and are able to bring their own information and perspectives to the attention of the public or key decision makers. With the explosive growth of technologies that
facilitate the sharing of information, this kind of stakeholder power has become increasingly important.
Consumers’ ability to use social networks to express their views about businesses
they like—and do not like—has given them power they did not previously have.
For example, Yelp Inc. operates a website where people can search for local
businesses, post reviews, and read others’ comments. In 2016, a dozen years after
its launch, Yelp attracted 145 million unique visitors every month. Its reviewers
collectively have gained considerable influence. Restaurants, cultural venues,
hair salons, and other establishments can attract customers with five-star ratings
and “People Love Us on Yelp” stickers in their windows—but, by the same
token, can be badly hurt when reviews turn nasty. A Harvard Business School
study reported that a one-star increase in an independent restaurant’s Yelp rating
led to a 5 to 9 percent increase in revenue. Some businesses have complained that
Yelp reviewers have too much power. “My business just died,” said the sole
proprietor of a housecleaning business. “Once they locked me into the 3.5 stars, I
wasn’t getting any calls.”22
Activists often try to use all of these kinds of power when they want to change a company’s policy. For example, human rights activists wanted to bring pressure on Unocal Corporation to change its practices in Burma (Myanmar), where it had entered into a joint venture
with the government to build a gas pipeline. Critics charged that many human rights violations occurred during this project, including forced labor and relocations. In an effort to
pressure Unocal to change its behavior, activists organized protests at shareholder meetings
(voting power), called for boycotts of Unocal products (economic power), promoted local
ordinances prohibiting cities from buying from Unocal (political power), brought a lawsuit
for damages on behalf of Burmese villagers (legal power), and gathered information about
government abuses by interviewing Burmese refugees and publicizing the results online
(informational power). These activists increased their chances of success by mobilizing
many kinds of power. This combination of tactics eventually forced Unocal to pay compensation to people whose rights had been violated and to fund education and health care
projects in the pipeline region.23
22
Michael Luca, “Reviews, Reputation, and Revenue: The Case of Yelp.Com,” Harvard Business School NOM Unit Working
Paper No. 12-016, March 16, 2016; and “Is Yelp Fair to Businesses?” PC World, November 15, 2011.
23
Further information about the campaign against Unocal is available at www.earthrights.org/unocal.
Chapter 1 The Corporation and Its Stakeholders 15
Exhibit 1.B provides a schematic summary of some of the main interests and powers of
both market and nonmarket stakeholders.
Stakeholder Coalitions
An understanding of stakeholder interests and power enables managers to answer the final
question of stakeholder analysis regarding coalitions.
How are coalitions likely to form?
Not surprisingly, stakeholder interests often coincide. For example, consumers of fresh
fruit and farmworkers who harvest that fruit in the field may have a shared interest in
reducing the use of pesticides, because of possible adverse health effects from exposure to
chemicals. When their interests are similar, stakeholders may form coalitions, temporary
alliances to pursue a common interest. Companies may be both opposed and supported by
stakeholder coalitions, as shown in the example of the controversial Keystone XL pipeline.
TransCanada, a major North American energy company, sought approval to build a
pipeline from Alberta, Canada, to Steele City, Nebraska, where it would connect to
existing pipelines running to refineries and ports along the Gulf Coast. In opposing
the Keystone XL pipeline, environmentalists argued it would enable the export of
oil extracted from Canadian tar sands, an energy-intensive and dirty process. When
burned, the tar sands oil would release carbon dioxide, contributing to further climate change, and spills from the pipeline could foul water supplies. They were
joined in coalition by other groups, such as ranchers, farmers, and Native Americans whose land would be crossed by the pipeline. On the other side, construction
unions, many local governments, and business groups supported the pipeline, saying that it would create jobs, reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil, and provide a
safer method of transport than trains or tanker trucks. In 2018, debate still raged,
and construction on the project had not begun.24
Stakeholder coalitions are not static. Groups that are highly involved with a company
today may be less involved tomorrow. Issues that are controversial at one time may be
uncontroversial later; stakeholders that are dependent on an organization at one time may
be less so at another. To make matters more complicated, the process of shifting coalitions does not occur uniformly in all parts of a large corporation. Stakeholders involved
with one part of a large company often have little or nothing to do with other parts of the
organization.
The discussion case at the end of this chapter describes the coalitions that developed in
favor of and opposition to new regulations that would require the ride-hailing start-up Uber
to insure drivers logged onto its system to look for customers.
Another variation of stakeholder analysis focuses on stakeholder salience. Some scholars have suggested that managers pay the most attention to stakeholders possessing greater
salience. (Something is salient when it stands out from a background, is seen as important,
or draws attention.) Stakeholders stand out to managers when they have power, legitimacy,
and urgency. This section has already discussed various forms of stakeholder power. Legitimacy refers to the extent to which a stakeholder’s actions are seen as proper or appropriate
by the broader society, because they are clearly affected by the company’s actions. Urgency
refers to the time-sensitivity of a stakeholder’s claim, that is, the extent to which it demands
24
“Keystone XL Pipeline Has Enough Oil Suppliers, Will be Built, TransCanada Says,” Inside Climate News, January 18, 2018;
“Keystone Pipeline Pros, Cons and Steps to a Final Decision,” The New York Times, November 18, 2014.
Exhibit 1.B
Stakeholders: Nature of Interest
and Power
Nature of Interest—
Stakeholder Wishes To:
Nature of Power—Stakeholder
Influences Company By:
Employees
■  Maintain stable employment in firm
■  Receive fair pay for work and mandated
benefits
■  Work in safe, comfortable environment
■  Union bargaining power
■  Work actions or strikes
■  Publicity
Shareholders
■  Receive a satisfactory return on
investments (dividends)
■  Realize appreciation in stock value over
time
■  Exercising voting rights based on share
ownership
■  Exercising rights to inspect company
books and records
Customers
■  Receive fair exchange: value and quality
for money spent
■  Receive safe, reliable products
■  Receive accurate information
■  Be able to voice concerns
■  Purchasing goods from competitors
■  Boycotting companies whose products
are unsatisfactory or whose policies are
unacceptable
Suppliers
■  Receive regular orders for goods
■  Be paid promptly for supplies delivered
■  Use capacity efficiently
■  Build stable relationships with business
customers
■  Be treated ethically
■  Refusing to meet orders if conditions of
contract are breached
■  Supplying to competitors
Retailers, Wholesalers
■  Receive quality goods in a timely fashion
at reasonable cost
■  Offer reliable products that consumers
trust and value
■  Buying from other suppliers if terms of
contract are unsatisfactory
■  Boycotting companies whose goods or
policies are unsatisfactory
Creditors
■  Receive repayment of loans
■  Collect debts and interest
■  Calling in loans if payments are not made
■  Utilizing legal authorities to repossess or
take over property if loan payments are
severely delinquent
Stakeholder
Market Stakeholders
immediate action. The more of these three attributes a stakeholder possesses, the greater
the stakeholder’s salience and the more likely that managers will notice and respond.25
Stakeholder Mapping
Once managers have conducted a stakeholder analysis, they can use it to develop a
stakeholder map, a visual representation of the relationships among stakeholder interests, power, and coalitions with respect to a particular issue.26 (A stakeholder map can
25
Ronald K. Mitchell, Bradley R. Agle, and Donna J. Wood, “Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining
the Principle of Who and What Really Counts,” Academy of Management Review 22, no. 4 (1997), pp. 853–86.
26
For two alternative approaches to stakeholder mapping, see David Saiia and Vananh Le, “A Map Leading to Less Waste,”
Proceedings of the International Association for Business and Society 20: 302–13 (2009); and Robert Boutilier, Stakeholder Politics: Social Capital, Sustainable Development, and the Corporation (Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf Publishing, 2009), Chs. 6 and 7.
16
Stakeholder
Nature of Interest—
Stakeholder Wishes To:
Nature of Power—Stakeholder
Influences Company By:
Nonmarket Stakeholders
Communities
■  Employ local residents in the company
■  Ensure that the local environment is
protected
■  Ensure that the local area is developed
■  Refusing to extend additional credit
■  Issuing or restricting operating licenses
and permits
■  Lobbying government for regulation of
the company’s policies or methods of
land use and waste disposal
Nongovernmental
organizations
■  Monitor company actions and policies
to ensure that they conform to legal and
ethical standards
■  Promote social and economic development
■  Gaining broad public support through
publicizing the issue
■  Lobbying government for regulation of
the company
Business support
groups (e.g., trade
associations)
■  Provide research and information
which will help the company or industry
perform in a changing environment
■  Using its staff and resources to assist
company in business endeavors and
development efforts
■  Providing legal or “group” political
support beyond that which an individual
company can provide for itself
Governments
■  Promote economic development
■  Encourage social improvements
■  Raise revenues through taxes
■  Adopting regulations and laws
■  Issuing licenses and permits
■  Allowing or disallowing commercial activity
The general public
■  Protect social values
■  Minimize risks
■  Achieve prosperity for society
■  Receive fair and honest communication
■  Networking with other stakeholders
■  Pressing government to act
■  Condemning or praising individual
companies
Competitors
■  Compete fairly
■  Cooperate on industry-wide or
community issues
■  Seek new customers
■  Pressing government for fair competition
policies
■  Suing companies that compete unfairly
also be used to represent stakeholder salience, to help a firm identify which stakeholders
may require more of their attention.) Consider the following example:
In Anaheim, California, a real estate developer called SunCal purchased a large lot
near to the Disneyland theme park. SunCal planned to build condominiums, with
15 percent of the units set aside for below-market-rate rental apartments. Because
the site was in the resort district, the developer required special permission from
the city council to proceed. Affordable housing advocates quickly backed SunCal’s
plans. Some unions representing Disney employees also supported the idea, as did
environmentalists drawn by the prospect of reducing long commutes, a contributor
to the region’s air pollution. Disney, however, strenuously opposed SunCal’s plan,
arguing that the land should be used only for tourism-related development such as
hotels and restaurants; the company was supported by the chamber of commerce
and various businesses in the resort district. The city council itself was split.
17
18
Part One Business in Society
If SunCal conducted a stakeholder analysis of this situation, it would conclude that
the interests of relevant stakeholders were divided. Some, including Disney and various local businesses and some politicians, opposed its plan. But others, including some
unions, affordable housing advocates, environmentalists, and other politicians, supported
it. An analysis of coalitions would show how these stakeholders were likely to ally with
one another. An analysis of power would show that Disney had enormous clout in Anaheim, because it was the city’s major employer and taxpayer, with power far exceeding
that of other relevant stakeholders. SunCal would no doubt conclude from this analysis
that it was unlikely to succeed in building on this site. A stakeholder map of this situation is shown in F…
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